Whey Protein

WHEY PROTEIN: A GENERAL OVERVIEW
Today high quality whey protein appears to be either at the highest peak of popularity or teetering on the verge of it's possible downfall to make way for other forms of protein either as good or if not better for certain applications. Whey is one of two major types of protein found in milk, casein being the other. It was originally isolated as a by product of cheese production. When cheese is made, the milk is 'curdled' using an enzyme named rennet, separating the curd from the whey. The curd initially looks like (and is) cottage cheese and contains mostly casein, while the whey is a syrupy sweet liquid that contains a variety of other proteins and large amounts of the milk sugar lactose and a little fat.. Up until not too long ago, it was thought that whey was worthless and it was simply disregarded as a waste product. Certain whey proteins are now being manufactured from milk processing instead of by-product cheese manufacturing. In this form the whey is virtually useless to the sports market and must undergo certain processing methods before it can be applied specifically.

Finally researchers began to study some of this waste product and discovered a few interesting facts. They discovered that this disregarded waste product was loaded with a variety of proteins and contained a better amino acid profile than egg white while also being very easily digestible and dissolved very well in water. Using a high quality form of cheese like Emmental rather than poor quality ones such as cheddar, the processing can yield high levels of glycomacropeptides (GMP's) which are important protein fractions important for recovery, immune system and growth.

It was then the trick to separate the high quality proteins from the undesirable lactose, fat and cholesterol components of the whey. Over the years, many processes were developed including high heat drying and acid treatment extractions. Unfortunately, both of these processes were destructive to the proteins, changing their characteristics and ruining their quality.

THE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES BRIEFLY
A few years ago, two processes were perfected that have the ability to extract the proteins from the whey while preserving their integrity. These processes are micro-filtration (where the proteins are physically separated by a microscopic filter) and ion exchange (where proteins are extracted by taking advantage of their specific electronic charges.) Both of these processes yield a high quality, low lactose, low fat whey protein. This is the protein which is commonly used as a sport supplement sold on it's own. It is important when looking for whey protein that they are clearly ion exchanged or micro filtered and not damaged by any other forms of poor extraction technology which could easily impair the quality of the whey.

For a whey protein to be termed a Whey Protein Isolate (WPI) a protein percentage of 90% must be attained, less than this figure qualifies a Whey Protein Concentrate (WPC). There are numerous benefits to supplementing the diet with a good quality whey protein as follows.

WHEY'S BENEFITS OVER OTHER PROTEINS
Whole whey protein isolates contain approximately ten percent intact immunoglobulin proteins (a class of proteins which consists of two polypeptide chains). This content, among other properties, helps support the body's immune system, placing whey protein at the top of the list for immuno enhancing potential. This is one of the main functional properties provided by whey.

It is interesting to note that immuno-supportive fractions like Lactoferrin, GMP, Alpha Lactalbumin (the predominant fraction in human milk) and the immunoglubulins, are now recognized as being the single most important factor in Whey Protein Concentrate (WPC). A WPC is in fact higher in fat than a WPI (Whey Protein Isolate) however it is worth noting that these growth factors are found mainly in the fat globule membrane and that when combined with a good WPI and hydrolyzed whey, the overall fat percentage is still low. It is usually the processing of the protein to increase the percentage to the standards of an Whey Protein Isolate that strips it of it's important fractions.

Whey protein contains the highest concentration (23 - 25%)  of branched chain amino acids (BCAA) of any single protein source. This BCAA content is important to bodybuilders because BCAA's are an integral part of muscle metabolism and are the first aminos sacrificed during muscle catabolism.

Another functional property of whey is it's ability to enhance endogenous (ocuring naturally in the body) glutathione production. Glutathione is the body's most powerful naturally ocuring antioxidant and also plays a role in immune system support.

Whey protein isolates contain quadrapeptides (short protein chains containing four amino acids) which have been shown to have opioid (pain killing) effects. This is another powerful functional property which may help decrease the sensation of muscle soreness following intense weight training.

Due to it's excellent amino acid profile, solubility, and digestibility, whey has a very high biological value (BV). BV is basically a measure of how well a protein is utilized by the body. As with all of the scoring systems whey rates very highly, with it's BV being 159.

One of the more interesting functional properties of whey protein to bodybuilders is it's reported ability to stimulate IGF-1 (insulin like growth factor-1) production.

DOWN SIDES OF WHEY PROTEIN
Whey protein supplementation also comes with a few down sides. Unfortunately quality whey protein created from one of the processes mentioned above (especially ion exchange), are the most expensive proteins on the market. They can be up to ten times the cost of other protein sources and even four to five times more expensive than regular whey proteins, which for some makes usage in viable amounts cost prohibitive.

Some companies market their whey as a cheaper alternative, however, often this is due to the cheaper manufacturing techniques and the majority of their product does not offer anywhere near the same health benefits. They may also be much higher in lactose, sodium, fat and possibly even cholesterol.

Whey protein is also lower in both arginine, phenylalanine and naturally ocuring glutamine than some other protein powders. Whereas casein (milk) based proteins are naturally high in glutamine and phenylalanine making them an interesting two proteins to combine. Often you will see people mixing their whey protein in a glass of milk, a simple method of combining whey with 8 - 16g of casein protein. On the down side much of the population are lactose intolerant or do not stomach milk too well.

It is also very interesting to note that whey increases anabolism quickly and to a large extent due to it's fast absorption and high rate of digestion however, these effects are very short lived. It has been shown that whey protein causes amino acid concentrations in the blood to rise rapidly however at the same rate increased oxidation (the use of the amino acids for energy) and so a steady state metabolism was created and no change in overall protein balance took place. Whey is also out of the blood stream very fast, sometimes within fifteen minutes, making it a poor anti catabolic. Some studies have even shown that two hours after taking whey that the blood serum level of amino acids had actually dropped below normal.  This debate has recently given rise to much of whey's bad press recently especially to protein sources of casein variety which are absorbed much slower and have great anti-catabolic properties. From this argument it has arisen in some theories that protein sources, especially whey should be combined. It should be noted that whey protein concentrate enters the system a little slower than isolate but is not of as high a quality protein nor is it filtered as much and so can contain higher levels of lactose, fat and possibly cholesterol.

It has been documented also that too much of a single source protein actually lowers utilization. Therefore someone using whey five or six times a day would show that early on in the day much of the protein is assimilate for use and by the end of the day far less is actually being absorbed and utilized.

It is also possible, but very rare that whey may cause a few individuals to suffer an allergic reaction. This tends to be the case with most unnatural, processed products where the human body doesn't quite know exactly how to handle the product at the cellular level and some disruption takes place. However this can be said about anything that may cause an allergy.

WHEY TOO FAST: SLOWING DOWN ABSORPTION
All that being said, whey protein seems to be the most popular choice on the market today. A lot of people combine their whey isolates with milk to slow down the absorption. Sometimes they mix their whey in water for a fast anabolic response after training and milk at other times. Some mix it in milk at all times or water at all times. The evidence is very varied. However it stands to reason that a whey isolate in water followed an hour later by a slow releasing protein is a good idea. Whey isolate in water in the morning may also be beneficial but avoided at night or at least added with milk before bed to slow the absorption down a little. A better choice protein like cottage cheese or micellar undenatured casein would probably serve a better choice before bed. Even a whey concentrate would enter the system slower and seems a better choice at times other than after training. A further argument then takes place where athletes such as bodybuilders whom consume 6 or more meals a day, often more frequently then every three hours and sometimes even more frequently than every two hours, don't require a slower releasing protein and should go for the one with the best makeup of amino acids and highest in BCAA's - being whey protein. The protein wars are typcally opinion based, or commercially fueled, with very little major concern for too much scientific fact. It is this fact that probably leads many health enthusiasts and trainers to actually experiment to find what they feel works best for them.

HOW MUCH?
Most athletes require around 1g of protein per pound of bodyweight. Some athletes, especially those with a fast metabolism may need higher amounts from 1.5 to 2 grams per pound of body weight. This fact is often disputed among scientists, companies and athletes, often being cited much lower at 1g per kg of bodyweight being the maximum requirement. Of course this would depend on a number of factors including training intensity, frequency, absorption, quality of protein etc, specific supplementation designed to absorb more protein, drug use etc.

EFFECTIVE AT LOW DOSES
Supplemental whey protein appears effective in low doses but many take in excess of 150g per day. This could prove costly and yield no greater benefits than having a more moderate 60g a day.

WHEY PROTEIN FRACTIONS
Beta-Lactoglobulin (BLG) - this is the largest protein fraction in whey and coupled with high levels of BCAA and Glutamyl Cycteine, which is important for muscle growth. This is the most abundant fraction in bovine milk yet it is naturally not found in human milk at all. Allergic reactions to it are common, the reason the infant formula market is trying to find an alpha-lactalbumin predominant formula. Marketed as being high in BCAAs, yet it has no further advantages over alpha-lactalbumin.

Alpha-Lactalbumin (ALA) - is a protein fraction that is easily digested by the body and often used in the baby food market. However this type of protein fraction has been shown to be highly effective at reducing stress induced Cortisol. Unfortunately it is usually low in most bovine dairy products.

Proteose-Peptone - High in glycomacropeptides, the percentage content of which has become a major marketing tool for some whey protein formulas. GMP's contain virtually all the sialic acid found in milk, a substance known to eliminate viruses from the system by binding to them. Including whey proteins in the diet that are high in sialic acid has been demonstrated to reduce the chances of catching influenza. GMP's can also effect modulation of digestion via the release of the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) after protein or fat ingestion. They are also known to promote the growth of friendly bacteria (probiotics) in the large intestines and to aid passage and absorption of some bioactive fractions.

Glycomacropeptides (GMP) - is a protein fraction that cause the release of Cholecystokinin (CCK). CCK is a hormone that tells your brain that you're full and therefore reduces appetite and prevents excessive eating and obesity.

Immunoglobulins (IgG) - these important protein fractions strengthen your immune system, keeping you free from illness, colds and flu's that the pressures of hard training and work can cause.

Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) - this protein fraction, contained in small amounts, contain Glutamyl-Cycteine which is a precursor to Glutathione - your body's most important antioxidant, possibly also possessing tumor prevention properties.

Growth Factors - contained within the fat globule membrane, they are believed to promote growth and result in elevation of plasma IGF (insulin like growth factor).

Lactoperoxidase - again, anotherimmuno-supportive fraction.

Lactoferrin - could be the most important fraction of all. Biotechnology companies are doing a lot of work with this fraction, of particular interest are it's post operative tissue regeneration and antibacterialproperties. Known to promaote healthy GI function, it is also a potentially effective anti oxidant. Lactoferrin has been shown to stimulate the immune defense system, to alter the effects of immune modulators and to very effectively bind and transport iron. Pharaceutical preparations containing this material are currently being explored.

                            Average Whey Protein Concentrate                Average Whey Protein Isolate

ALA                                    11.3% - 14.5%                                            8.3% - 22.6%

BLA                                    37.9% - 49.0%                                            38.9% - 73.0%

IgG                                        5.0% - 7.9%                                            1.0% - 3.5%

BSA                                      1.1% - 3.0%                                            0.0% - 1.8% 

Lactoferrin                            1.3% - 1.8%                                              0.0% - 1.8%

GMP's                                  0.0% - 11.0%                                            0.0% - 1.0%

Fractions are sensitive to heat, acidic pH or both. Because Growth Factors are contained within the fat globule membrane, fine filtration techniques like, those used to produce whey isolates, can remove most of them. This is why they occur at higher levels in concentrates. Ion-exchange whey is virtually void of all GMP's as they are acid labile and due to the chemical reagents used in this form of processing most are lost. The immunoglubulins and BSA are heat sensitive and both are denatured by relatively low temperatures. It is also worth noting a protein high in beta-lactalbumin will actually be low in he other more desirable fractions.

Unfortunately as whey is a by-product of cheese manufacture, there will have already been some degree of heat treatment and pH adjustment prior to any filtration process it may have undergone. As seen in the table above most GMP's are to be found in a whey concentrate rather than an isolate due to the processing techniques. In actual fact the highest concentration of GMP's actually comes from micellar undenatured casein and not whey at all. Not to be mistaken with normal caseinate.

IONIC EXCHANGE WHEY
This is a rather complicated and costly process to use and relatively only a very few number of companies in the world have the actual technology to use this type of processing. The benefits of this form of processing are that it allows you to determine the exact fraction you require and achieve very low levels of fats, carbohydrates and lactose that may not be beneficial to the end product. During this processing method weak dilution of hydrochloric acid (HCL) are used (about the same HCL as in your own stomach) to break bonds between the resins (positively charged) and the electrical charge. The proteins being negatively charged are therefore attracted to the resins whereas the water, lactose, minerals and fat are not attracted and are left behind. The pH level does not fall below 4.6 and so the protein is not denatured. After the HCL has been added to release the bonds, sodium is normally added to increase the pH level to a neutral taste. Some whey uses a potassium salt to raise the pH level to a neutral taste. If this were not done then the protein would taste very bitter, acidic and unpleasant to taste. Those interested in bodybuilding competitions and are dieting to very low body fat should avoid ion exchange whey with added sodium unless a potassium salt is used as this can cause water retention and a higher appearance of body fat than is actually there. Once the protein is in liquid form it is dried. At this point too much heat could damage the protein and a cold spray drying technique should be used.

With this form of processing it is possible to control the amount and quantities of protein fractions. Often ion exchange whey is high is BLG, probably not the best choice of protein fraction as it is quite prone to causing allergic reactions.

There is a little research to suggest that there is an increase in protein absorption when using ionic exchanged whey. An ion exchange whey protein is classed as a Whey Isolate with a protein percentage of 90% or above. A good ion exchange whey protein will generally mix very well and if any lumps exists in water, leaving to stand for about five minutes should see them dissolve. Often leaving a slightly bitter or tinny taste in the mouth after consumption.

CROSS FLOW MICRO FILTRATION
For this type of process there are a number of different names: CFM, ultrafiltration, microfiltration and nanofiltration but are all the same method which we will refer to as CFM. This is another excellent method to extract high quality whey protein , using milk and not cheese as the source, with slightly different benefits. These methods can also be used on sweet dairy whey with equal success. Initially the source of milk generally comes from New Zealand Dairies or France where there are much stricter laws regarding milk production. The cows are not allowed to be heavily drugged up and mass produced or genetically modified such as those America. The milk is then centrifugally spun at very high speeds to make it curdle, so the fat content can be removed. This leaves skimmed milk, with a fat content of around 0.5%. In order to cause the casein to curdle the milk is acidified at a pH of 4.6 and no lower so as not to denature the protein. The curd (casein) is then easily strained off, leaving the raw whey protein ready to work with. Using different membrane sizes the whey is fed through a funnel type of machine, where through selective filtration the particles not wanted are removed.

Firstly Ultra filtration is used as it removes most of the lactose and minerals but still leaves the fat and protein content intact. Secondly Nano-filtration is used to remove the undesirable minerals such as sodium, and other mineral that are not required or need to be reduced. finally micro-filtration is used for removing the remainder of fats and lactose (leaving figures of around 1 - 2%). the result is a very high quality whey protein isolate, which is low in fat, carbohydrate and lactose. The reason why this technique is used is the membranes do not trap the large protein molecules, leaving the inferior or unwanted ingredients to pass through the membrane. 

Although this is a great method for producing a nice, pure whey protein, it cannot alter the protein fraction content such as BLG or ALA, as the ion exchange method is so effective at. As with an ion exchange process the protein is cold spray dried, as if temperatures are too high the protein would be damaged.

HYDROLYSIS
Hydrolysis is the most expensive process used in protein manufacturing. A whey hydrolysis costs nearly triple the cost of an ionic exchange whey.

Hydrolysised whey protein involves taking a whey from one of the above methods and then breaking the protein down into protein bonds known as di, tri and poli whey peptides. A protein peptide being a number of amino acids connected together, di being two, tri being three and poli being many. Research has shown that the di and tri whey peptides are the most beneficial with excellent recovery, strength and lean muscle building capabilities, as well as immune boosting qualities. Di peptides have also been shown to increase the absorption of water from the intestines which may be beneficial to cell volume and hydration. The poli peptides are not beneficial and therefore need to be removed. Micro filtration is the process used to trap the poli peptides and ensures the di and tri powder is left. At this stage the enzyme used to make the petides result in the powder having a strong acidic taste. There are processes available to neutralise the taste again.

Whey Hydrolysates are partially pre digested whey proteins, in other words some of the work your body must do has already been performed, ensuring maximum absorption is achieved. This provides a protein with a very high Biological Value that your body can break down and digest far more quickly than any other protein source. This floods the muscle cell with amino acids and a host of other muscle building nutrients. 

WHEN TO USE WHEY PROTEINS
It would be a good idea to seek out a protein powder which contains a combination of CFM, Ion Exchange and Hydrolised whey to use immediately after a heavy training session to quickly resupply the body with a fast influx of amino acids. Followed not long after by a slightly slower absorbed protein such as a micellar casein product or animal based protein with a little unsaturated fats. Again this is probably a good idea first thing in the morning when your body has been starved of food while you sleep throughout the night. Generally men use around 25 - 50g of whey protein at these two times and women 20 - 30g although these figures are not a hard and fast rule and an individuals requirements do vary.

At other times of the day it would be wise to use a slower released whey protein such as a whey protein concentrate which hasn't been as highly refined as ion exchange, CFM or hydrolysis. Often combining this protein with a slower releasing protein like micellar casein or adding fiber and a little unsaturated oil to slow the release would be beneficial, especially before bedtime in order to maintain a good, steady and slow release of amino acids through the typical 7 or 8 hours of fasting we call sleep.

There are 4 calories in every gram of protein.

COMPETITIVE SPORTS
It is generally considered that those athletes competing in extreme sporting conditions such as bodybuilding competitions, boxing and serious sprinting etc, may wish to steer clear of liquid protein drinks, meal replacements or weight gainers two weeks or so prior to a competition. This purely and simply is to do with the sodium content of many of these products. When trying to appear more muscular or bring down bodyweight stored body water can cause some problems. Techniques such as sodium depletion and carb loading are critical to the competing athlete and the sodium content of these liquid foods may be unbeneficial at these stages of contest preparation.